roboflow · AlexBodner · May 14, 2026 · May 14, 2026 · May 14, 2026 · May 14, 2026
@@ -0,0 +1,193 @@
+---
+title: C-BIoU — Cascaded-Buffered IoU Tracker | Trackers
+comments: true
+description: C-BIoU improves association under fast or irregualar motion by matching with Buffered IoU instead of plain IoU, using a ByteTrack-style pipeline.
+---
+
+# C-BIoU (Cascaded-Buffered IoU)
+
+## What is C-BIoU?
+
+C-BIoU builds on the same tracking pipeline as [ByteTrack](bytetrack.md) but replaces plain IoU with **Buffered IoU (BIoU)**, expanding boxes before overlap is computed so tracks and detections can still match when motion of the object is fast or boxes barely align. It runs two association passes with a small buffer first and a larger buffer second (`buffer_ratio_first` and `buffer_ratio_second`), so only bounding boxes are required. C-BIoU is a strong fit for sports and dance footage where objects move fast and change direction.
+
+## How does C-BIoU compare to other trackers?
+
+For comparisons with other trackers, plus default and tuned parameters, see the [tracker comparison](comparison.md) page.
+
+|  Dataset   | HOTA | IDF1 | MOTA |
+| :--------: | :--: | :--: | :--: |
+|   MOT17    | 63.0 | 79.1 | 77.4 |
+| SportsMOT  | 73.1 | 72.6 | 96.7 |
+| SoccerNet  | 82.6 | 76.6 | 97.0 |
+| DanceTrack | 53.8 | 53.8 | 90.1 |
+
+## How does C-BIoU work?
+
+C-BIoU keeps the [ByteTrack](bytetrack.md)-style association pipeline used in [BoT-SORT](botsort.md) but replaces plain IoU with **Cascaded Buffered IoU** at each association step.
+
+**First association (b1).** High-confidence detections are matched to confirmed and lost tracks using BIoU with `buffer_ratio_first` (paper **b1**, small buffer). Costs are fused with detection confidence.
+
+**Second association (b2).** Remaining *tracked* tracks (not lost) are matched to low-confidence detections using BIoU with `buffer_ratio_second` (paper **b2**, large buffer). In this implementation, this larger buffer corresponds to ByteTrack's recovery stage for unmatched tracks and low-confidence detections.
+
+**Unconfirmed association (b1).** Leftover high-confidence detections are matched to unconfirmed tracks using the same buffer as pass 1. Unmatched unconfirmed tracks are removed. This step is inherited from ByteTrack lifecycle logic, not the paper's two-buffer cascade.
+
+**Track lifecycle.** New tracks are initiated and confirmed with a conservative policy (`minimum_consecutive_frames`) to reduce one-frame false positives. Existing tracks that remain unmatched longer than `lost_track_buffer` are removed.
+
+## Key Parameters
+
+| Parameter                                 | Purpose                                                               | Tuning guidance                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |
+| ----------------------------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
+| `lost_track_buffer`                       | Number of frames to keep an unmatched track alive before deletion.    | Higher value tolerates longer occlusions but risks false re-association. Use range (10, 30) for most scenes; up to 60 for very long occlusions.                                                                                                    |
+| `track_activation_threshold`              | Minimum detection confidence required to start a new track.           | Higher value reduces noisy track creation; lower value retains harder objects. 0.5-0.9 typical depending on detector quality. This does not control low-confidence association, which still discards detections at a fixed `0.1` confidence floor. |
+| `minimum_consecutive_frames`              | Number of consecutive matches required before confirming a new track. | 1 for immediate activation; 2-3 improves robustness against flicker and false positives.                                                                                                                                                           |
+| `minimum_iou_threshold_first_assoc`       | Minimum fused BIoU similarity for the first association pass.         | Lower value helps maintain matches under fast motion; higher value is stricter.                                                                                                                                                                    |
+| `minimum_iou_threshold_second_assoc`      | Minimum BIoU similarity for the second association pass.              | Usually set to a lower value than the first-pass threshold to recover weak detections without over-matching.                                                                                                                                       |
+| `minimum_iou_threshold_unconfirmed_assoc` | Minimum fused BIoU similarity when associating unconfirmed tracks.    | Higher value makes tentative tracks harder to confirm spuriously; lower value helps short-lived or noisy objects survive.                                                                                                                          |
+| `high_conf_det_threshold`                 | Confidence split between stage-1 and stage-2 detections.              | 0.5-0.7 common. Higher value shifts more detections to recovery stage; lower value gives stage-1 broader coverage.                                                                                                                                 |
+| `buffer_ratio_first`                      | Paper **b1**, small BIoU buffer for the first association pass.       | Typical range 0.1-0.7. Should be **less than** `buffer_ratio_second`.                                                                                                                                                                              |
+| `buffer_ratio_second`                     | Paper **b2**, large BIoU buffer for the second association pass.      | Typical range 0.2-1.0. Should be **greater than** `buffer_ratio_first`.                                                                                                                                                                            |
+
+!!! warning "Buffer ordering (b1 < b2)"
+
+    Always set `buffer_ratio_first` < `buffer_ratio_second`. The cascaded matcher applies the **smaller** buffer first, then the **larger** buffer only on pairs that remain unmatched. Reversing the order (b1 ≥ b2) is not consistent with the paper and usually hurts performance.
+
+!!! warning "Frame input is ignored by C-BIoU"
+
+    `CBIoUTracker.update()` accepts `frame` for API consistency with other trackers, but C-BIoU does not use image/frame pixels.
+    If you pass `frame` with a non-`None` value, the tracker emits a `UserWarning` and ignores it.
+
+## Run on video, webcam, or RTSP stream
+
+These examples use `opencv-python` for decoding and display. Replace `<SOURCE_VIDEO_PATH>`, `<WEBCAM_INDEX>`, and `<RTSP_STREAM_URL>` with your inputs. `<WEBCAM_INDEX>` is usually 0 for the default camera.
+
+=== "Video"
+
+    ```python
+    import cv2
+    import supervision as sv
+    from rfdetr import RFDETRMedium
+    from trackers import CBIoUTracker
+
+    tracker = CBIoUTracker()
+    model = RFDETRMedium()
+
+    box_annotator = sv.BoxAnnotator()
+    label_annotator = sv.LabelAnnotator()
+
+    video_capture = cv2.VideoCapture("<SOURCE_VIDEO_PATH>")
+    if not video_capture.isOpened():
+        raise RuntimeError("Failed to open video source")
+
+    while True:
+        success, frame_bgr = video_capture.read()
+        if not success:
+            break
+
+        frame_rgb = cv2.cvtColor(frame_bgr, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
+        detections = model.predict(frame_rgb)
+        detections = tracker.update(detections)
+
+        annotated_frame = box_annotator.annotate(frame_bgr, detections)
+        annotated_frame = label_annotator.annotate(
+            annotated_frame,
+            detections,
+            labels=detections.tracker_id,
+        )
+
+        cv2.imshow("RF-DETR + C-BIoU", annotated_frame)
+        if cv2.waitKey(1) & 0xFF == ord("q"):
+            break
+
+    video_capture.release()
+    cv2.destroyAllWindows()
+    ```
+
+=== "Webcam"
+
+    ```python
+    import cv2
+    import supervision as sv
+    from rfdetr import RFDETRMedium
+    from trackers import CBIoUTracker
+
+    tracker = CBIoUTracker()
+    model = RFDETRMedium()
+
+    box_annotator = sv.BoxAnnotator()
+    label_annotator = sv.LabelAnnotator()
+
+    video_capture = cv2.VideoCapture("<WEBCAM_INDEX>")
+    if not video_capture.isOpened():
+        raise RuntimeError("Failed to open webcam")
+
+    while True:
+        success, frame_bgr = video_capture.read()
+        if not success:
+            break
+
+        frame_rgb = cv2.cvtColor(frame_bgr, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
+        detections = model.predict(frame_rgb)
+        detections = tracker.update(detections)
+
+        annotated_frame = box_annotator.annotate(frame_bgr, detections)
+        annotated_frame = label_annotator.annotate(
+            annotated_frame,
+            detections,
+            labels=detections.tracker_id,
+        )
+
+        cv2.imshow("RF-DETR + C-BIoU", annotated_frame)
+        if cv2.waitKey(1) & 0xFF == ord("q"):
+            break
+
+    video_capture.release()
+    cv2.destroyAllWindows()
+    ```
+
+=== "RTSP"
+
+    ```python
+    import cv2
+    import supervision as sv
+    from rfdetr import RFDETRMedium
+    from trackers import CBIoUTracker
+
+    tracker = CBIoUTracker()
+    model = RFDETRMedium()
+
+    box_annotator = sv.BoxAnnotator()
+    label_annotator = sv.LabelAnnotator()
+
+    video_capture = cv2.VideoCapture("<RTSP_STREAM_URL>")
+    if not video_capture.isOpened():
+        raise RuntimeError("Failed to open RTSP stream")
+
+    while True:
+        success, frame_bgr = video_capture.read()
+        if not success:
+            break
+
+        frame_rgb = cv2.cvtColor(frame_bgr, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
+        detections = model.predict(frame_rgb)
+        detections = tracker.update(detections)
+
+        annotated_frame = box_annotator.annotate(frame_bgr, detections)
+        annotated_frame = label_annotator.annotate(
+            annotated_frame,
+            detections,
+            labels=detections.tracker_id,
+        )
+
+        cv2.imshow("RF-DETR + C-BIoU", annotated_frame)
+        if cv2.waitKey(1) & 0xFF == ord("q"):
+            break
+
+    video_capture.release()
+    cv2.destroyAllWindows()
+    ```
+
+For BIoU mathematics and using `BIoU(buffer_ratio=...)` on other trackers, see [IoU variants](../learn/iou.md#biou). To tune hyperparameters with Optuna, see [Hyperparameter tuning](../learn/tune.md).
+
+## Reference
+
+Yang, F., Odashima, S., Masui, S., and Jiang, S. (2023). Hard To Track Objects with Irregular Motions and Similar Appearances? Make It Easier by Buffering the Matching Space. WACV 2023. [arXiv:2211.14317](https://arxiv.org/abs/2211.14317)
@@ -1,11 +1,11 @@
 ---
-title: SORT vs ByteTrack vs OC-SORT vs BoT-SORT — MOT Benchmark Comparison | Trackers
-description: Side-by-side benchmark comparison of SORT, ByteTrack, OC-SORT, and BoT-SORT on MOT17, MOT20, DanceTrack, and SportsMOT — HOTA, IDF1, MOTA scores with default and tuned parameters.
+title: SORT vs ByteTrack vs OC-SORT vs BoT-SORT vs C-BIoU — MOT Benchmark Comparison | Trackers
+description: Side-by-side benchmark comparison of SORT, ByteTrack, OC-SORT, BoT-SORT, and C-BIoU on MOT17, DanceTrack, SportsMOT, and SoccerNet — HOTA, IDF1, MOTA with default and tuned parameters.
 ---
 
 # Tracker Comparison
 
-This page shows head-to-head performance of SORT, ByteTrack, OC-SORT, and BoT-SORT on standard MOT benchmarks. Results are shown with default parameters and with parameter-tuned configurations found via grid search.
+This page shows head-to-head performance of SORT, ByteTrack, OC-SORT, BoT-SORT, and C-BIoU on standard MOT benchmarks. Results are shown with default parameters and with parameter-tuned configurations found via grid search.
 
 !!! info "Benchmark version"
 
@@ -38,7 +38,8 @@ Pedestrian tracking with crowded scenes and frequent occlusions. Strongly tests
     |   SORT    |   58.4   |   69.9   |   67.2   |
     | ByteTrack |   60.1   |   73.2   |   74.1   |
     |  OC-SORT  |   61.9   |   76.4   |   76.0   |
-    | BoT-SORT  | **63.7** | **78.7** | **79.2** |
+    | BoT-SORT  | **63.7** |   78.7   | **79.2** |
+    |  C-BIoU   |   63.0   | **79.1** |   77.4   |
 
 === "Tuned"
 
@@ -49,7 +50,8 @@ Pedestrian tracking with crowded scenes and frequent occlusions. Strongly tests
     |   SORT    |   60.4   |   72.5   |   75.8   |
     | ByteTrack |   60.5   |   72.7   |   76.1   |
     |  OC-SORT  |   62.0   |   76.5   |   77.3   |
-    | BoT-SORT  | **63.8** | **78.7** | **79.4** |
+    | BoT-SORT  | **63.8** |   78.7   | **79.4** |
+    |  C-BIoU   |   63.0   | **79.1** |   77.4   |
 
     Tuned configuration for each tracker.
 
@@ -85,6 +87,18 @@ Pedestrian tracking with crowded scenes and frequent occlusions. Strongly tests
       track_activation_threshold: 0.6
       enable_cmc: true
       cmc_method: sparseOptFlow
+
+    C-BIoU:
+      lost_track_buffer: 30
+      minimum_consecutive_frames: 2
+      minimum_iou_threshold_first_assoc: 0.2
+      minimum_iou_threshold_second_assoc: 0.5
+      minimum_iou_threshold_unconfirmed_assoc: 0.3
+      high_conf_det_threshold: 0.6
+      track_activation_threshold: 0.7
+      buffer_ratio_first: 0.3
+      buffer_ratio_second: 0.5
+      enable_cmc: false
     ```
 
 ## [SportsMOT](https://arxiv.org/abs/2304.05170)
@@ -111,6 +125,7 @@ Sports broadcast tracking with fast motion, camera pans, and similar-looking tar
     | ByteTrack |   73.0   |   72.5   |   96.4   |
     |  OC-SORT  |   71.7   |   71.4   |   95.0   |
     | BoT-SORT  | **73.8** | **73.4** | **96.9** |
+    |  C-BIoU   |   73.1   |   72.6   |   96.7   |
 
 === "Tuned"
 
@@ -122,6 +137,7 @@ Sports broadcast tracking with fast motion, camera pans, and similar-looking tar
     | ByteTrack |   73.3   |   73.5   |   95.9   |
     |  OC-SORT  |   74.0   | **75.4** |   95.6   |
     | BoT-SORT  | **74.1** |   74.0   | **96.9** |
+    |  C-BIoU   |   73.1   |   72.6   |   96.7   |
 
     Tuned configuration for each tracker.
 
@@ -157,6 +173,18 @@ Sports broadcast tracking with fast motion, camera pans, and similar-looking tar
       track_activation_threshold: 0.8
       enable_cmc: true
       cmc_method: sparseOptFlow
+
+    C-BIoU:
+      lost_track_buffer: 30
+      minimum_consecutive_frames: 2
+      minimum_iou_threshold_first_assoc: 0.2
+      minimum_iou_threshold_second_assoc: 0.5
+      minimum_iou_threshold_unconfirmed_assoc: 0.3
+      high_conf_det_threshold: 0.6
+      track_activation_threshold: 0.7
+      buffer_ratio_first: 0.3
+      buffer_ratio_second: 0.5
+      enable_cmc: false
     ```
 
 ## [SoccerNet-tracking](https://arxiv.org/abs/2204.06918)
@@ -184,17 +212,19 @@ Long sequences with dense interactions and partial occlusions. Tests long-term I
     | ByteTrack |   84.0   |   78.1   | **97.8** |
     |  OC-SORT  |   78.4   |   72.6   |   94.1   |
     | BoT-SORT  | **84.5** | **79.3** |   96.6   |
+    |  C-BIoU   |   82.6   |   76.6   |   97.0   |
 
 === "Tuned"
 
     Results after grid search over tracker parameters.
 
     |  Tracker  |   HOTA   |   IDF1   |   MOTA   |
     | :-------: | :------: | :------: | :------: |
-    |   SORT    |   84.2   |   78.2   | **98.2** |
-    | ByteTrack |   84.0   |   78.1   | **98.2** |
+    |   SORT    |   84.2   |   78.2   |   98.2   |
+    | ByteTrack |   84.0   |   78.1   |   98.2   |
     |  OC-SORT  |   82.9   |   77.9   |   96.8   |
-    | BoT-SORT  | **85.0** | **79.7** |   97.2   |
+    | BoT-SORT  |   85.0   |   79.7   |   97.2   |
+    |  C-BIoU   | **85.7** | **80.0** | **99.3** |
 
     Tuned configuration for each tracker.
 
@@ -230,6 +260,17 @@ Long sequences with dense interactions and partial occlusions. Tests long-term I
       track_activation_threshold: 0.7
       enable_cmc: true
       cmc_method: sparseOptFlow
+
+    C-BIoU:
+      lost_track_buffer: 43
+      minimum_consecutive_frames: 2
+      minimum_iou_threshold_first_assoc: 0.05
+      minimum_iou_threshold_second_assoc: 0.46
+      minimum_iou_threshold_unconfirmed_assoc: 0.27
+      high_conf_det_threshold: 0.40
+      track_activation_threshold: 0.48
+      buffer_ratio_first: 0.68
+      buffer_ratio_second: 0.50
     ```
 
 ## [DanceTrack](https://arxiv.org/abs/2111.14690)
@@ -261,8 +302,9 @@ Group dancing tracking with uniform appearance, diverse motions, and extreme art
     | :-------: | :------: | :------: | :------: |
     |   SORT    |   45.0   |   39.0   |   80.6   |
     | ByteTrack |   50.2   |   49.9   |   86.2   |
-    |  OC-SORT  | **51.8** | **50.9** | **87.3** |
+    |  OC-SORT  |   51.8   |   50.9   |   87.3   |
     | BoT-SORT  |   50.5   |   49.2   |   85.1   |
+    |  C-BIoU   | **53.8** | **53.8** | **90.1** |
 
 === "Tuned"
 
@@ -271,9 +313,10 @@ Group dancing tracking with uniform appearance, diverse motions, and extreme art
     |  Tracker  |   HOTA   |   IDF1   |   MOTA   |
     | :-------: | :------: | :------: | :------: |
     |   SORT    |   50.6   |   49.6   |   84.3   |
-    | ByteTrack | **53.2** | **54.6** |   86.8   |
-    |  OC-SORT  |   52.0   |   51.8   | **87.2** |
-    | BoT-SORT  | **53.5** | **54.0** |   86.5   |
+    | ByteTrack |   53.2   |   54.6   |   86.8   |
+    |  OC-SORT  |   52.0   |   51.8   |   87.2   |
+    | BoT-SORT  |   53.5   |   54.0   |   86.5   |
+    |  C-BIoU   | **54.6** | **57.0** | **89.6** |
 
     Tuned configuration for each tracker.
 
@@ -309,6 +352,17 @@ Group dancing tracking with uniform appearance, diverse motions, and extreme art
       track_activation_threshold: 0.7
       enable_cmc: true
       cmc_method: sparseOptFlow
+
+    C-BIoU:
+      lost_track_buffer: 53
+      minimum_consecutive_frames: 2
+      minimum_iou_threshold_first_assoc: 0.11
+      minimum_iou_threshold_second_assoc: 0.57
+      minimum_iou_threshold_unconfirmed_assoc: 0.30
+      high_conf_det_threshold: 0.36
+      track_activation_threshold: 0.83
+      buffer_ratio_first: 0.23
+      buffer_ratio_second: 0.33
     ```
 
 ## Methodology
@@ -321,9 +375,10 @@ detector following the ByteTrack procedure). The source is noted per dataset abo
 
 ### Tuning
 
-Best parameters per tracker and dataset were found via grid search, selecting the
-configuration with the highest HOTA. Tuning and evaluation always use separate data
-splits to reflect real-world usage:
+Best parameters per tracker and dataset were found via grid search (SORT, ByteTrack,
+OC-SORT, BoT-SORT) or Optuna (`n_trials=100`, objective HOTA, trial 0 = defaults for
+C-BIoU), selecting the configuration with the highest HOTA on the tune split. Tuning and
+evaluation always use separate data splits to reflect real-world usage:
 
 - Train + validation + test: tune on validation, report on test.
 - Train + validation: tune on train, report on validation.
@@ -354,6 +409,8 @@ association, which reduces ID switches on panning or handheld footage. Use BoT-S
 broadcasts, drone video, or any scene where the camera moves frequently. The CMC overhead is
 small relative to the detector, so the trade-off favors identity stability over raw speed.
 
+**C-BIoU** targets irregular motion and similar appearances when you want buffered, cascaded geometric matching without camera motion compensation. It is strongest on SoccerNet and DanceTrack in these benchmarks, and reaches the highest IDF1 on MOT17 among the trackers listed here. Use C-BIoU when BoT-SORT-style association is a good fit but CMC is unavailable or harmful, or when plain IoU matching is too strict. See [C-BIoU](cbiou.md) for buffer scales **b1** and **b2**.
+
 ## Metric Definitions
 
 **HOTA** (Higher Order Tracking Accuracy) — the primary benchmark metric. HOTA decomposes