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<title>Romans 9–11 as Diatribe</title>
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<h1>Romans 9–11 as Diatribe</h1>
<p class="date">Posted on June 30, 2026. 12-minute read.</p>
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<figcaption>Photo CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. Credit: <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/hrishi/4413792152" rel="external" target="_blank">Hrishikesh Karambelkar</a>.</figcaption>
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<section id="Introduction">
<h2>Introduction</h2>
<p>Romans 9 is one of the more infamous chapters in the Bible. In Exodus, God's hardening of Pharaoh's heart is woven throughout the plague narrative in ways scholars still debate. Sometimes Pharaoh hardens his own heart, sometimes God is said to harden it for him, and the text never quite resolves which comes first. Writing of this same God, the Apostle Paul seems, in verse 22 of his epistle to the Romans, to suggest something starker still: that "God, desiring to show his wrath and to make known his power, has endured with much patience vessels of wrath prepared for destruction." Then, faced with the obvious question of justice, Paul writes, "who are you who argue against God?"</p>
<p>I did not understand this passage until I first read David Bentley Hart's <i>The New Testament: A Translation</i>. At the conclusion of a characteristically Hart-ian footnote digressing into the Greek of verse 22, Hart writes, "As this whole passage is conditional in form, and is finally negated as a counterfactual below in 11:32, perhaps it is not a matter of crucial moment exactly how one reads it." In other words: the very structure of the sentence Paul writes in 9:22 has already built into it the answer he gives at the argument's end. The vessels of wrath are not vessels of wrath. That footnote was also my first real introduction to the idea (argued at length by Stanley Stowers, Robert Jewett, Justin King, and others) that much of Romans is structured as a diatribe, with Paul raising an imagined interlocutor's objections only to refute them. The whole arc of chapters 9 through 11 came into focus for me, not as Paul's grim doctrine of election, but as a live argument that dismantles, by its end, the very distinction it raised at the start.</p>
<p>To my knowledge, no one has yet rewritten Romans 9–11 as a formal diatribe, making that argumentative structure explicit rather than implicit. What follows uses Hart's translation as a base to give that silent opponent a voice, so the dismantling of "vessels of wrath" unfolds as dialogue rather than as something the reader has to excavate from a footnote.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2>Romans 9–11</h2>
<p><b>9:1–5</b><br>
<b>Paul:</b> In the Anointed, I speak truth, I do not lie, my conscience testifying along with me in a holy spirit that I harbor immense sorrow and unceasing pain in my heart; for I have been praying that I myself be something accursed by the Anointed for the sake of my brothers, my kindred according to flesh. They who are Israelites: theirs the filial adoption and the glory and the covenants and the Lawgiving and the worship and the promises. Theirs the fathers, and from them—according to the flesh—the Anointed; blessed unto the ages the God over all things, amen.
</p>
<p><b>9:6</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> Then surely God's word has proved ineffectual. His promises to Israel have come to nothing?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Not at all. Not all of those who come from Israel are Israel.
</p>
<p><b>9:7–8</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> What do you mean? Are not all of Abraham's seed his children?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> No. "Through Isaac will seed be named for you." That is: not the children of the flesh, these children of God; rather, the children of the promise are reckoned as seed.
</p>
<p><b>9:9</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> And this promise, what was it?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> "I will come in due time, and there will be a son for Sarah."
</p>
<p><b>9:10–13</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> But Isaac's case still involved a miraculous birth. Is that not the basis of the distinction?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Consider, then, Rebecca, who conceived by one man, our father Isaac. Before her twin sons were born, before they had done anything good or bad, it was told her: "The greater shall be slave to the lesser." God's purpose in electing had to remain, coming not from observances but from the one calling. As it is written: "Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated."
</p>
<p><b>9:14</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> What then shall we say? Is there injustice with God?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Let it not be so!
</p>
<p><b>9:15–16</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> But how is it just to love one and hate the other before either has acted?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> He tells Moses: "I will have mercy on whomever I have mercy, and I will pity whomever I pity." So, then—neither of the one willing nor of the one running, but of the God showing mercy.
</p>
<p><b>9:17–18</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> And Pharaoh? Was he simply made to be destroyed?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Scripture says to Pharaoh, “For this very thing I raised you forth, so that in you I might display my power, and so that my name might be proclaimed abroad in all the earth.” So, then, he has mercy on whom he wishes, and hardens whom he will.
</p>
<p><b>9:19</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> Why does he still assign blame? For who has thwarted his purpose?
</p>
<p><b>9:20–21</b><br>
<b>Paul:</b> But no, O man, who are you who argue against God? Will the thing molded say to the molder, "Why did you make me thus?" Or does the potter not have the power to make from the same mass of clay both the vessel for honor and the one for dishonor?
</p>
<p><b>9:22–24</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> Does it not follow that some vessels are simply made for wrath, their only function to provide a contrast that throws the vessels of mercy into relief? Are the stumbling ones merely props in someone else's salvation?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Consider what God's forbearance actually shows. What if God, though disposed to display his indignation and make known what is possible for him, tolerated with enormous magnanimity vessels of indignation, suitable for destruction in order that he might also make known the wealth of his glory upon vessels of mercy that he had already prepared for glory, whom—us—he called not only from the Judaeans but from the gentiles as well?
</p>
<p><b>9:25–26</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> The gentiles? Where does scripture speak of that?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> In Hosea: "I will call the people not mine 'my people,' and her who is not loved 'Beloved.'" And again: "In the very place where it was said to them, 'You are not a people of mine,' there they will be called sons of a living God."
</p>
<p><b>9:27–29</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> And what of Israel itself in all this?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Isaiah cries on Israel's behalf: "Though the number of Israel's sons be as the sands of the sea, the remainder will be saved. For the Lord will execute a decree, completing it and abbreviating it upon the earth." And just as Isaiah has previously said, "Had not the Lord Sabaoth left us a seed, we should have become as Sodom and been made like Gomorrah."
</p>
<p><b>9:30–31</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> What then shall we say?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> That gentiles, not chasing after righteousness, seized hold of righteousness—albeit a righteousness coming from faithfulness—while Israel, chasing after a Law of righteousness, failed to catch up to the Law.
</p>
<p><b>9:32–10:2</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> Why? How did Israel fail to reach what it was running toward?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Because not out of faithfulness, but rather out of observances, they stumbled over the "stone of stumbling," Just as has been written, "See: I set in Zion a stone of stumbling and a rock for faltering, and whoever has faith on him will not be put to shame." My heart's fond desire and prayer to God on their behalf is for salvation. For I testify of them that they have a zeal for God, but not according to knowledge.
</p>
<p><b>10:3–4</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> What do you mean, "not according to knowledge"? They have the Law itself!<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Not knowing God's justice and seeking to set up their own, they did not become subject to God's justice. Because the end of the Law is the Anointed, for the purpose of uprightness for everyone having faith.
</p>
<p><b>10:5–8</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> But does Moses not promise life through the Law's observance?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Moses writes of the Law's uprightness that: "The man who does these things will live by them." But the uprightness coming from faithfulness speaks thus: "Do not say in your heart, 'Who will ascend into heaven?'"—that is, to bring the Anointed down—"Or, 'Who will descend into the abyss?'"—that is, to bring the Anointed up from the dead. What does it say, rather? "The utterance is near you, in your mouth and in your heart"—that is, the utterance of the faith that we proclaim.
</p>
<p><b>10:9–10</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> And what is this faith, precisely?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> That if you confess with your mouth, "Jesus is Lord," and have faith in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you shall be saved. For one has faith in the heart for uprightness and confesses with the mouth for salvation.
</p>
<p><b>10:11–13</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> But is this not a narrowing—faith rather than the Law—that excludes rather than includes?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> It is the opposite. "No one who has faith in him will be put to shame." For there is no distinction between Judaean and Greek. For the same one is Lord of all, with riches for all who call on him. For "Everyone who invokes the name of the Lord shall be saved."
</p>
<p><b>10:14–15</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> How may they invoke one in whom they did not have faith? And how may they have faith in one of whom they have not heard?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Exactly. How may they have faith in one of whom they have not heard? And how may they hear apart from someone proclaiming? And how may they proclaim unless they were sent forth? Just as has been written: "How lovely the feet of those [announcing glad tidings of peace and] proclaiming glad tidings of good things."
</p>
<p><b>10:16</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> Yet not everyone has heeded the good tidings.<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> True. Isaiah says: "Who had faith in our report?"
</p>
<p><b>10:17–18</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> So faith requires hearing, but has Israel truly heard? Can their failure be blamed on ignorance?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> No indeed: "Their speech went out to all the earth, and their utterances to the ends of the inhabited world."
</p>
<p><b>10:19–21</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> Then did Israel simply not understand what they heard?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Moses says, "I will provoke you to envy against a non-nation, I will provoke you to anger against a witless nation." And Isaiah grows bold and says, "I was found by those not seeking me, I became manifest to those not asking after me." And to Israel he says, "The whole day long, I stretch out my hands to an intractable and gainsaying people."
</p>
<p><b>11:1</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> This is damning. Did God reject his people?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Let it not be so! For I too am an Israelite, of Abraham's seed, of the tribe of Benjamin.
</p>
<p><b>11:2–6</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> But you have just described Israel as intractable and gainsaying. What ground is there for hope?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> God did not reject his people, whom he knew in advance. Or do you not know what scripture says regarding Elijah, how he made a plea with God against Israel? "Lord, they killed your prophets and razed your altars to the ground, and I was left behind alone and they seek my soul." Yet what does the divine oracle tell him? "I reserved seven thousand men for myself, those who did not bend the knee to Baal." So, then, in the present time too a remnant has arisen according to the election of grace. And if by grace, then no longer from observances, since grace would then no longer be grace.
</p>
<p><b>11:7–10</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> What then for the rest of Israel?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> The mark Israel aims at, this it did not hit, but "Election" did hit it; and the rest were hardened. As has been written, "God gave them a spirit of stupor, eyes that do not see, and ears that do not hear"—right up to the present day. And David says, "Let their table come to serve as a snare and as a net and as a stumbling-block and as retribution for them. Let their unseeing eyes be darkened, and their back forever bent down."
</p>
<p><b>11:11</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> You have described the hardened as stumbling. They stumbled as vessels of wrath, and so they fell?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Let it not be so! Rather, through their error comes salvation for the gentiles, so as to provoke them to envy.
</p>
<p><b>11:12–16</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> But if their error is enrichment for the cosmos and their discomfiture enrichment for the gentiles, is the arrangement fixed?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> No. For if their rejection is reconciliation for the cosmos, what is their acceptance except life from the dead? If the firstfruits is holy, the whole mass of dough is too; and if the root is holy, the branches are too.
</p>
<p><b>11:17–18</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> We gentiles have been grafted in where Israel's branches were broken off. Surely that vindicates us?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Do not exult over the branches; rather, if you do exult, you do not support the root, but rather the root you.
</p>
<p><b>11:19–22</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> Still, branches were broken off that I might be grafted in. Does that not mark a distinction in our favor?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Fair enough. They were broken off by faithlessness and you have stayed in place by faithfulness. Do not be haughtily minded, but fearful. For if God did not spare the natural branches, neither will he spare you. See, then, God's kindness and severity: severity upon those who have fallen, but God's kindness upon you if you abide in that kindness; otherwise you too will be cut off.
</p>
<p><b>11:23–24</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> And can those natural branches ever be restored?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Yes. If they do not persist in faithlessness, they will be grafted in; for God is able to graft them in again. For if you were cut from an olive wild by nature and, contrary to nature, grafted into a cultivated olive, how much rather will these, in keeping with nature, be grafted into their own proper tree.
</p>
<p><b>11:25–27</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> But you still speak as though there are two categories: the hardened and the elect remnant. Surely the estrangement of the greater part is permanent?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> No. I do not want you to be ignorant of this mystery, lest you be arrogant: that a hardness has come upon one part of Israel until the full totality of the gentiles enter in, and thus all of Israel shall be saved, just as has been written, "The one who delivers will come out of Zion, he will turn away impiety from Jacob, and this is the covenant on my part with them, when I take away their sins."
</p>
<p><b>11:28–29</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> So Israel is simultaneously enemy and beloved?<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> Yes. On your account, as regards the good tidings, they are enemies; and yet, on account of the fathers, as regards election, they are beloved. For God's bestowals of grace and vocation are not subject to a change of heart.
</p>
<p><b>11:30–32</b><br>
<b>Interlocutor:</b> Then come back to what you said at the beginning: are there vessels of wrath and vessels of mercy, or not? You never fully answered.<br>
<br>
<b>Paul:</b> There are none. Even as you once did not trust in God but have now received mercy through their mistrust, so they now also have not trusted, to the end that, by the mercy shown you, they now also might receive mercy. For God shut up everyone in obstinacy so that he might show mercy to everyone. There is no vessel of wrath that is not also, finally, a vessel of mercy. The potter makes one mass of clay, and in the end remakes it all for glory.
</p>
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