New notes.

Author: localhost433

notes/courses/LING-UA-1/01-intro.md

@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ Overview of what will be covered in the course.
 
 ## How does language work?
 - Language as a mapping
-    ```
+    ```text
     form                 <->               function
     sound/sign <-> words <-> sentences <-> meaning
     ```

notes/courses/LING-UA-1/04-05-phonology.md

@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ How phonemes can be sequenced.
 ### Syllables
 - Smallest prosodic unit in most languages.
 
-```
+```text
 syllable
 |--rime
 |  |--coda
@@ -163,15 +163,15 @@ A java style psuedocode for the process (this is added at Jun 14, after I felt t
 ---
 
 #### Flapping rule
-```
+```text
 /t/ -> [r] | 'V_V
 /t/ -> [t] | *elsewhere
 ```
 
 ---
 
 #### Aspiration
-```
+```text
 /t/ -> [t^h] | _.'
 /t/ -> [t] | elsewhere*
 ```

notes/courses/LING-UA-1/08-09-10-syntax.md

@@ -330,7 +330,6 @@ public String adjVsComp(Phrase phrase) {
   }
 }
 ```
-```
 
 Potential structural ambiguity, example:
 "We ate the food in the kitche."

notes/courses/LING-UA-2/06-history.md

@@ -0,0 +1,113 @@
+---
+title: Names & Settlement History
+date: 2025-10-21
+---
+
+# Toponyms & Settlement History
+
+**Key idea**  
+Place names (**toponyms**) encode the linguistic and settlement history of a region. By analyzing their structure and spatial distribution, we can infer **who** settled there and **when**.
+
+**Definitions**
+- **Toponym**: A place name (city, river, hill, region, etc.).
+- **Specifier**: The part that distinguishes this place from other places of the same type (e.g. *Copen-* in **Copenhagen**).
+- **Generic**: The general place-type (e.g. *-hagen* “harbor”, *-ton* “town”, *-ham* “home/village”).
+
+**Themes**
+- European place names tend to be **descriptive**: physical environment or people living there.
+- The **language** of the generic/specifier (and how they cluster geographically) reveals earlier settlement layers.
+- Similar specifier+generic patterns show up **across languages** and **within countries**.
+
+---
+
+# Specifier + Generic Patterns
+
+**Structure**
+- Many toponyms are of the form **[specifier + generic]**:
+  - e.g. *Oxford* = *ox* (cattle) + *ford* (river crossing).
+  - *Newcastle*, *Greenwich*, *Brighton*, etc.
+- The **generic** often comes from an older stratum of the language (Old English, Norse, Celtic).
+
+**Cross-linguistic parallels**
+- Different languages use **parallel generics**:
+  - English *-town*, German *-stadt*, Scandinavian *-by* (settlement), etc.
+  - River-related elements, hill/mountain terms, woodland terms, etc.
+- Some specifier+generic combinations are so common that they recur across cultures with similar meanings.
+
+**What to practice**
+- Identify **specifier** and **generic** in given English place names.
+- Guess what the generic means (river, hill, settlement, etc.) and what language it likely comes from.
+
+---
+
+# Layers of Settlement in Place Names (UK Example)
+
+**Idea**  
+In England, toponyms preserve **multiple settlement layers**:
+- Pre-Germanic (Celtic) elements.
+- Old English elements.
+- Norse/Viking elements.
+- Norman French additions.
+
+**Mechanism**
+- Earlier names are often **not fully replaced**: older generics or specifiers may survive, sometimes only partially recognizable.
+- Clusters of certain generics (e.g. Norse-style endings) correlate with regions heavily settled by that group.
+
+**What this shows**
+- Even when **languages shift**, **place-name elements** remain as “fossils”.
+- We can reconstruct **historical settlement maps** from modern toponyms.
+
+---
+
+# Multilingual Toponyms within a Single Country
+
+**Pattern**
+- Within one country, different regions may show different **place-name languages**:
+  - Example: coexisting Celtic, English, and Norse elements in Britain.
+- When certain generics cluster in one area, they point to the **prior inhabitants’ language**.
+
+**Inference**
+- Spatial clustering of one language’s generics → region was once dominated by that language group.
+- Sudden changes/boundaries in place-name language can match **historical political or settlement boundaries**.
+
+---
+
+# NYC & US Examples
+
+**NYC area**
+- Many NYC-area names are from **Native American** languages:
+  - e.g. *Hackensack*, *Passaic*, *Manhattan*.
+- Others reflect **Dutch rule** (1624–1664):
+  - e.g. *Brooklyn* (from Breukelen), *Harlem* (from Haarlem).
+- Others reflect **British rule** (1664–1783) and later **American** myth-making.
+
+**US expansion westward**
+- European settlers moved west in **waves**, leaving traces in:
+  - Place names (European cities replicated: *New London*, *New Berlin*).
+  - County names, townships, and landmarks commemorating heroes, battles, presidents, etc.
+- Named maps can show **paths of settlement**, ethnic enclaves, and changing political priorities.
+
+---
+
+# Surnames as Parallel Evidence
+
+**Last names and history**
+- The most common **surnames** in a region also encode:
+  - Migration patterns (e.g. high concentration of a particular ethnic surname).
+  - Past colonization or slavery.
+  - Religious and linguistic history.
+
+**Combined evidence**
+- **Toponyms + surnames** together provide a richer picture:
+  - Toponyms = long-term geographic memory.
+  - Surnames = more recent demographic patterns.
+
+---
+
+# Takeaways
+
+- Place names are **linguistic fossils**: they preserve traces of past languages, peoples, and power.
+- The combination of **specifier + generic**, their **languages**, and their **geographic clustering** gives evidence for:
+  - Who settled where.
+  - In what sequence.
+  - How later settlers layered new names on top of older ones.

notes/courses/LING-UA-2/07-world.md

@@ -0,0 +1,150 @@
+---
+title: Names Around the World
+date: 2025-10-23
+---
+
+# Names Around the World
+
+## Overview
+
+- Two main questions:
+  1. **Surnames** – How are they formed and assigned in different societies?
+  2. **Given names** – Does the **state** ever regulate what you can be called?
+
+- Broad surname types:
+  - **Patronymic/matronymic**: formed from a parent’s given name.
+  - **Hereditary surnames**: fixed across generations, not identical to the parent’s given name.
+  - **Tribal / clan affiliations**: encode membership in a **lineage** or **clan**.
+
+---
+
+## Patronymic & Matronymic systems
+
+### Iceland
+
+- Canonical modern patronymic system:
+  - Child’s “surname” = **parent’s given name + suffix**.
+  - **Son**: *-son* (‘son of’), e.g. **Einar Jónsson** (“Einar, Jón’s son”).
+  - **Daughter**: *-dóttir* (‘daughter of’), e.g. **Eva Jónsdóttir**.
+- 2019 Gender Autonomy Act:
+  - Introduces **-bur** ‘child’ as a **gender-neutral** option when a parent is registered non-binary.
+- Some Icelandic last names come from other sources, but **most** follow the patronymic pattern.
+
+### Ethiopia / Eritrea / Djibouti
+
+- Similar logic but with **three names**:
+  - **Given name** (person),
+  - **Father’s given name**,
+  - **Grandfather’s given name**.
+- People are addressed by **given name** with a title:
+  - e.g. *ato Mohamed* (‘Mr. Mohamed’), *Professor Tsehay*.
+- Emphasis is on **lineage**, but usage in everyday address focuses on the **given name + title**.
+
+### Russia
+
+- **Hereditary surname** + **patronymic middle name**:
+  - Patronymic is formed from the father’s given name:
+    - Male: **-ovich / -evich**
+    - Female: **-ovna / -evna**
+  - Example:  
+    - *Rodion Romanovich Raskolnikov* (father = Roman).  
+    - Sister: *Avdotya Romanovna Raskolnikova*.
+- Patronymics are a core part of **formal address**:
+  - Workplace, school, official contexts use **first name + patronymic**.
+- Formation rules depend on the **final letters** of the father’s name; multiple spelling rules govern the suffix choice.
+
+---
+
+## Hereditary surnames and their origins
+
+Many hereditary surnames started out as **descriptive phrases**, then fossilized.
+
+### Former patronymics
+
+- Originally indicated **“X’s son/daughter”**, but now just **family names**:
+  - Anglo: **Johnson, Robertson, Davidson**.
+  - Scandinavian: **Nielsen, Rasmussen, Hansen, Olsen, Andersson, Johansson**.
+  - Spanish: **-ez** suffix (from Latin “descendant of”):  
+    **Domínguez, López, Martínez, Pérez, Rodríguez, Sánchez**, etc.
+
+### Geographic / toponymic surnames
+
+- Refer to **places** or **landscape features**:
+
+Specific locations:
+- Italian: **Di Napoli** (‘from Naples’), **Fiorentino** (‘from Florence’).
+- Polish: **Krakowski** (‘from Krakow’).
+
+Geographic features:
+- Japanese: **Yamamoto** (‘mountain base’), **Tanaka** (‘rice field’), **Nakamura** (‘central village’), **Kimura** (‘tree village’).
+- Finnish: **Nieminen** (‘peninsula’), **Virtanen** (‘small stream’), **Mäkelä** (‘hill / farmstead’).
+
+### Occupational surnames
+
+- Encode **traditional professions**:
+
+  - English: **Smith, Miller, Baker**.
+  - German: **Weber** (‘weaver’), **Zimmermann** (‘carpenter’), **Wagner** (‘wagon maker/driver’).
+  - Arabic: **Al-Sayyad** (‘hunter/fisher’), **Al-Tabib** (‘doctor’).
+  - Turkish: **Demir** (‘ironworker’), **Bardakci** (‘glassblower’), **Terzi** (‘tailor’).
+  - French: **Meunier** (‘miller’), **Berger** (‘shepherd’), **Boucher** (‘butcher’).
+  - Indian subcontinent: **Acharya** (‘teacher’), **Patel** (‘village head’), **Gandhi** (‘perfumer’).
+
+### Traits and personal characteristics
+
+- Some surnames derive from **qualities** or **physical traits**:
+
+  - Indian subcontinent (often Sanskrit-origin): **Sharma** (‘joy/shelter’), **Gupta** (‘protected/hidden’), **Iyer** (‘learned one’).
+  - Persian: **Masoumi** (‘innocence’), **Behnam** (‘honorable’).
+  - Polish: **Nowak** (‘newcomer’), **Wesoły** (‘cheerful’).
+  - Spanish: **Delgado** (‘thin’), **Rubio** (‘blonde’), **Grande** (‘large’).
+
+---
+
+## Clan and tribal surnames
+
+### Scottish clans
+
+- Historically, clan surnames encoded **membership and allegiance**:
+  - Not only blood relatives; anyone living on the **chief’s land** could adopt the name.
+  - Surnames were **patrilineal**.
+- Examples:
+  - **Campbell, Duncan, Robertson, MacDonald, MacKenzie**.
+- Morphology:
+  - **Mac/Mc** = ‘son of’ (Gaelic).
+  - **-son** and **-s** in English also serve as patronymic markers (e.g. **Robertson, Adams**).
+
+### Korean clans
+
+- Modern Korean surnames often reflect **historical clan affiliation**.
+- A clan is defined by:
+  - The **surname**, and
+  - The **bon-gwan**: ancestral place/region of origin.
+- Example:
+  - **Kim** is shared across many clans; the **Gimhae Kim** clan traces legendary ancestry to Kim Suro.
+- People can share the same **surname** but belong to **different clans**, distinguished by bon-gwan.
+
+---
+
+## Given names and state regulation
+
+- Some states **regulate given names** to:
+  - Ensure they use the **official writing system**,  
+  - Protect children from **offensive or impractical names**, or  
+  - Preserve **cultural traditions**.
+- Mechanisms include:
+  - **Approved name lists**,
+  - Requiring names to be **spelled in a particular script**,  
+  - Allowing or restricting certain **morphological patterns** (e.g. gendered endings).
+
+---
+
+## Takeaways
+
+- Surname systems encode:
+  - **Family structure** (patronymic vs hereditary),
+  - **History of professions, places, and traits**,
+  - **Tribal or clan affiliation**.
+- Given-name systems show how **governments and societies**:
+  - Shape personal identity through **law and policy**,
+  - Balance **individual choice** with **linguistic and cultural norms**.