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<html>
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8" />
<meta name="generator" content="pandoc" />
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<title>R Commands</title>
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</head>
<body>
<div class="container-fluid main-container">
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<div id="header">
<h1 class="title toc-ignore">R Commands</h1>
</div>
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<hr />
<p><em>“For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn
by doing them.”</em></p>
<p>― Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics</p>
<p><br></p>
<hr />
<div id="getting-started" class="section level2">
<h2>Getting Started</h2>
<div style="padding-left:15px;">
<span class="tooltipr">
<a href="javascript:showhide('hovertobegin')">Hover your mouse here to
begin.</a> <span class="tooltipRtext">Good work! <br/> This book
requires that you interact with it to learn. Hovering is the first step.
<br/> Now "click" to get started. </span> </span>
<div id="hovertobegin" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><br/></p>
<p>Student: "How do I learn R?"</p>
<p>Teacher: "By using it."</p>
<p>Student: "But I don't know how to use it."</p>
<p>Teacher: "Just try it anyway. Suddenly you'll understand."</p>
<p>Most people that are new to using the "R Software" ask the question,
"How do I learn R?" The answer is simple: "start using it." Really.
Seriously. Just start using it, even when you have no idea what you are
doing, and suddenly you will start to learn R. So, here we go. The more
you use it, the more you will know.</p>
<p>This page follows a simple learning model: Hover. Click. Try.</p>
<p><img src="Images/HoverClickTry.png" /></p>
<p><br/></p>
<p>Hover over <span class="tooltipr"><code>code</code><span
class="tooltipRtext">Yes, just like that. By hovering over "Codes" you
will get instructions on what that code does.</span></span> to read
about it. Click on a <span
class="tooltipr"><a href="javascript:showhide('smileyface')"><code>line of code</code></a><span
class="tooltipRtext">Hovering is a good start, try clicking on this
one.</span></span> to see what it does. Try typing the code into RStudio
yourself to actually start learning R.</p>
<div id="smileyface" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><img src="Images/smileyfacecongratulations.jpg"></p>
</div>
<p><strong>Examples</strong></p>
<p>For each of the following examples: (1) hover, (2) click, and (3)
try.</p>
<p>Before you begin, ensure you have RStudio open. It should look like
this:</p>
<a href="javascript:showhide('CarsOutput')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> View( <span class="tooltipRtext">The "View" R
function (with a CAPTIAL 'V' in View) allows us to view a data set. When
run, this function will open up a new tab in RStudio showing the data
set. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> cars <span
class="tooltipRtext"><code>cars</code> is a data set that is in R. R has
datasets that are available for anyone to use. You can see them using
the <code>data()</code> command. It would be good to explore
<code>View()</code> for a few different datasets. </span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> ) <span class="tooltipRtext">Always be sure to end
your function with closing parantheses. </span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Tutorial <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to see a full
tutorial on the "View()" command.</span> </span></p>
</div>
</a>
<div id="CarsOutput" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p>R allows you to work with data. So, the first step to understanding R
is to open a dataset and begin exploring some data.</p>
<p>If you type the <code>data()</code> command into your Console of
RStudio you will see a list of "built in" data sets that come with
R.</p>
<p><img src="Images/DataOutput.png" /></p>
<p><br/></p>
<p>The <code>cars</code> data set is one of the options that is
available. This is a fun "historic" data set from the 1920's. It shows
the <code>speed</code> and stopping <code>dist</code>ance of cars from
the 1920's.</p>
<p>To see the <code>cars</code> data set in RStudio, use the
<code>View</code> command as follows.</p>
<p><strong>Step 1.</strong> Open RStudio.</p>
<p><strong>Step 2.</strong> Type the command <code>View(cars)</code>
into your <strong>Console</strong>.</p>
<p><strong>Step 3.</strong> Press <code>Enter</code> or
<code>Return</code> and the following output should appear within
RStudio.</p>
<p><img src="Images/ViewCars.png" /></p>
<p><br/></p>
<p>Be sure to <strong>TRY IT</strong> yourself, if you haven't already.
Good work if you did. It's the only way to learn R.</p>
<p>Ask someone for help if you aren't sure how to get started.</p>
<p><br/> <br/></p>
</div>
<a href="javascript:showhide('meancarsdist')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> mean( <span class="tooltipRtext">An R
function "mean()" that will compute the mean of a quantitative column of
data from a data set.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> cars <span
class="tooltipRtext"><code>cars</code> is the name of a data set in R.
Any data set can be used instead by simply typing the name of that data
set instead of <code>cars</code>.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr">
$ <span class="tooltipRtext">The <code>$</code> sign is a powerful
operator in R. The <code>$</code> sign allows you to access, or
"purchase," any column from a data set. Try typing <code>cars$</code>
into R and notice how a selection menu appears with options
<code>dist</code> and <code>speed</code>.</span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> dist <span class="tooltipRtext"><code>dist</code> is
one of the two columns from the <code>cars</code> data set. By typing
<code>cars$dist</code> we are essentially pulling that column of data
out of the data set, and then computing the mean of that column with
<code>mean(cars$dist)</code>.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> )
<span class="tooltipRtext">Closing parenthesis for the
<code>mean()</code> function.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr">
<br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to see
output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
</a>
<div id="meancarsdist" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><img src="Images/meancarsdist.png" /></p>
<p>You may also be interested in trying any of the following:</p>
<ul>
<li><code>sd(cars$dist)</code></li>
<li><code>var(cars$dist)</code></li>
<li><code>median(cars$dist)</code></li>
<li><code>min(cars$dist)</code></li>
<li><code>max(cars$dist)</code></li>
<li><code>length(cars$dist)</code></li>
<li><code>sum(cars$dist)</code></li>
</ul>
<p><br/> <br/></p>
</div>
<a href="javascript:showhide('plotcarsdist')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> plot( <span class="tooltipRtext">The
<code>plot(...)</code> function allows us to create a plot (usually a
scatterplot) in R.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> dist <span
class="tooltipRtext"> <code>dist</code> is the name of a column. This is
going to be the Y-variable of the plot. The Y-variable always comes
first in the plot(Y ~ X) command.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr">
~ <span class="tooltipRtext"> <code>~</code> is found on the
upper-left key of your keyboard. It is called the "tilde" or "tilda"
symbol. It is used to state a relationship between Y and X:
<code>Y ~ X</code>.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> speed, <span
class="tooltipRtext"> <code>speed</code> is the name of a column. This
is going to be the X-variable of the plot. The X-variable always comes
after the <code>~</code> in the <code>plot(Y ~ X)</code> command.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr"> data=cars <span class="tooltipRtext"> The
<code>data=</code> statement is used to tell R which data set the
columns of "dist" and "speed" come from. In this case, the
<code>cars</code> data set.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> )
<span class="tooltipRtext">Closing parenthesis for the plot(...)
function.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
</a>
<div id="plotcarsdist" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><img src="Images/plotcarsblue.png" /></p>
<p>Try changing the <code>col="skyblue"</code> statement to
<code>col="firebrick"</code> instead. What do you notice?</p>
<p>Try changing the <code>pch=16</code> statement to <code>pch=4</code>
or any other number from 1 to 25. What do you notice?</p>
<p>Hint: pressing the "up" arrow on your keyboard brings up the last
command you typed into the Console.</p>
<p><br/></p>
<div style="background-color:skyblue;padding:10px;">
<p><strong>Completion Code:</strong> abc123R</p>
</div>
</div>
<p><br/></p>
<p><span style="color:orange;">This is "the end" of the <em>Getting
Started</em> tutorial.</span> <span style="color:gray;">To find the
"completion code" you will need to study, and "click open" each of the
example codes above.</span></p>
</div>
</div>
<br />
<hr />
</div>
<div id="the-help-command" class="section level2">
<h2><code>?</code> The Help Command</h2>
<div style="padding-left:15px;">
<p>Getting help in R is easy.</p>
<p><strong>Usage</strong></p>
<p><code>?something</code></p>
<ul>
<li>This command pulls up the help file for whatever you write in the
place of <code>something</code>.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Examples</strong></p>
<p>Click to view. Hover to learn.</p>
<a href="javascript:showhide('HelpOutput')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> ? <span class="tooltipRtext">The quick way to
access the help function in R.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr">
cars <span class="tooltipRtext">The name of a dataset can be typed to
open the help file for that dataset.</span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
</a>
<div id="HelpOutput" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><img src="Images/HelpOutputcars.png" /></p>
</div>
<a href="javascript:showhide('HelpOutput2')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> ? <span class="tooltipRtext">The quick way to
access the help function in R.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr">
data <span class="tooltipRtext">The name of an R function, like
<code>data</code> can also be used to open the help file for that
function.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
</a>
<div id="HelpOutput2" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><img src="Images/HelpOutputData.png" /></p>
</div>
<a href="javascript:showhide('HelpOutput3')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> ? <span class="tooltipRtext">The quick way to
access the help function in R.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr">
mean <span class="tooltipRtext">The <code>mean</code> function computes
the mean of a column of quantitative data. Typing the name of an R
function, like <code>mean</code> can also be used to open the help file
for that function.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
<p></a></p>
<div id="HelpOutput3" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><img src="Images/helpmean.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<br />
<hr />
</div>
<div id="dollar" class="section level2">
<h2><code>$</code> The Selection Operator</h2>
<div style="padding-left:15px;">
<p>Once you have a dataset, you need to be able to access columns from
it.</p>
<p><strong>Usage</strong></p>
<p><code>DataSetName$ColumnName</code></p>
<ul>
<li>The <code>$</code> operator allows you to access the individual
columns of a dataset.</li>
</ul>
<p><span style="font-size:.8em;">Tip: think of the data set as a "store"
from which you "purchase" a column using "money":
<code>$</code>.</span></p>
<p><strong>Example Code</strong></p>
<a href="javascript:showhide('airqualityDollar')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> airquality <span class="tooltipRtext">The
<code>airqaulity</code> dataset. This could be the name of any dataset
instead of <code>airquality</code>.</span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> $ <span class="tooltipRtext"> Grabs the column, or
variable, from the dataset to be used. This is typically used when
computing say the mean (or other statistic) of a single column of the
data. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> Wind <span
class="tooltipRtext"> The name of any column of the dataset can be
entered after the dollar sign. In the airquality dataset, this includes:
<code>Ozone</code>, <code>Solar.R</code>, <code>Wind</code>,
<code>Temp</code>, <code>Month</code>, or <code>Day</code> as shown by
<code>View(airquality)</code>. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr">
<br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
<p></a></p>
<div id="airqualityDollar" style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><img src="Images/airqualityDollar.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>This allows you to compute things about that column, like the mean or
standard deviation.</p>
<a href="javascript:showhide('airqualityDollarCompute')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> mean( <span class="tooltipRtext">The
<code>mean</code> function computes the mean of a column of quantitative
data.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> airquality <span
class="tooltipRtext">The <code>airquality</code> dataset. This could be
the name of any dataset instead of <code>airquality</code>.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr"> $ <span class="tooltipRtext"> Grabs the
column, or variable, from the dataset to be used. This is typically used
when computing say the mean (or other statistic) of a single column of
the data. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> Wind <span
class="tooltipRtext"> The name of any column of the dataset can be
entered after the dollar sign. In the airquality dataset, this includes:
<code>Ozone</code>, <code>Solar.R</code>, <code>Wind</code>,
<code>Temp</code>, <code>Month</code>, or <code>Day</code> as shown by
<code>View(airquality)</code>. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> )
<span class="tooltipRtext">Closing parenthesis to the mean()
function.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> <br />
<span class="tooltipRtext">Press Enter to run the code.</span>
</span><span class="tooltipr" style="float:right;font-size:.8em;">
Click to Show Output <span class="tooltiprtext">Click to View
Output.</span> </span></p>
</div>
<p></a></p>
<div id="airqualityDollarCompute"
style="display:none;padding-left:20px;">
<p><em>9.958</em></p>
</div>
<a href="javascript:showhide('airqualityDollarComputeSD')">
<div class="hoverchunk">
<p><span class="tooltipr"> sd( <span class="tooltipRtext">The
<code>sd</code> function computes the standard deviation of a column of
quantitative data.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> airquality
<span class="tooltipRtext">The <code>airqaulity</code> dataset. This
could be the name of any dataset instead of
<code>airquality</code>.</span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> $ <span
class="tooltipRtext"> Grabs the column, or variable, from the dataset to
be used. This is typically used when computing say the mean (or other
statistic) of a single column of the data. </span> </span><span
class="tooltipr"> Wind <span class="tooltipRtext"> The name of any
column of the dataset can be entered after the dollar sign. In the
airquality dataset, this includes: <code>Ozone</code>,
<code>Solar.R</code>, <code>Wind</code>, <code>Temp</code>,
<code>Month</code>, or <code>Day</code> as shown by
<code>View(airquality)</code>. </span> </span><span class="tooltipr"> )
<span class="tooltipRtext">Closing parenthesis to the sd()